Traditional Oil Extraction Techniques

Traditional Oil Extraction Techniques – Antioxidant; carotene; Nut-bearing coconuts; crude palm oil (CPO); Elias guinensis; enzymatic extraction; fatty acid (FA) profile; supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)

Refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) coconut oil (CO) and RBD palm oil (PO) are widely consumed by Asians as cooking oil. Recently, virgin coconut oil (VCO) and palm pressed mesocarp oil (PPMO) have entered the market as functional oils. Many studies have been conducted on the extraction of these edible oils using various methods and conditions. Therefore, this review focuses on the extraction methods of CO, VCO, CPO and PPMO and their yields and phytonutrient profiles. Phytonutrients such as carotenoids, tocopherol and tocotrienols, squalene, phytosterol and coenzyme Q.

Table of Contents

Were found in all oils in varying concentrations depending on their extraction method. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) showed the highest recovery efficiency of VCO and PPMO among extraction methods in terms of yield and phytonutrient content. VCO extracted by the SFE method contains fatty acids with a higher average chain length, which promotes good digestibility compared to other extraction methods. PPMO extracted by SFE is pure, has a pleasant aroma, is free of resins and contains less phospholipids. In addition, water-soluble phenols were found in PPMO, which contribute to its antioxidant activity. Therefore, SFE is highly recommended for VCO and PPMO extraction.

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Natural products are the main source of antioxidants, which include polyphenols, phytosterols, alkaloids, terpenoids and organosulfur compounds due to the presence of the hydroxyl (–OH) group [1]. These compounds are also known for their anti-inflammatory, blood glucose-lowering [2], antimicrobial [3], and protein modulatory properties [4]. Most of these compounds are plant secondary metabolites that are naturally synthesized by plants or vegetables to perform specific functions. These functions include defense against biotic and abiotic stresses and plant interactions with several types of evolved pathogens, resulting in more than 100,000 metabolites involved in the plant defense system [5]. Additionally, plant secondary metabolites are also known as phytonutrients due to their important role in providing health benefits to humans. Fruits, especially colored fruits, contain a rich source of phytonutrients [4], such as carotenoids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, phenols and phytosterols. For example, carrots are rich in carotenes, and tomatoes are rich in lycopenes. Several types of carotenoids, such as α-carotene, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin, are involved in the activity of provitamin A and are converted to vitamin A in the human body [6]. On the other hand, lycopene is known to be an effective free radical scavenger [7]. Vitamin E, especially tocopherols and tocotrienols, are rich in oil palm fruit as natural antioxidants and have been reported to have anticancer properties in vivo [8]. In addition, consumption of β-sitosterol, a phytosterol present in vegetables or fruits, has a hypocholesterolemic effect by reducing cholesterol levels in the body [9].

The widespread occurrence of phytonutrients in plants and vegetables contributes to their phytonutrient profile. Raw fruits and vegetables are usually processed for ease of consumption and to extend shelf life. Thus, the content of phytonutrients in food products is highly dependent on their processing methods [4]. In the edible oil industry, many factors must be considered to ensure the desired quality of the final product. One of the most important factors is the method and technology used in oil production [10]. The yield of vegetable oils varies depending on the types of plant tissues containing the oils. Oils are usually concentrated in the pulp, seeds, tubers and drupes. Examples of oilseed plants are oil palm, coconut and olive, while soybean, sunflower and canola are examples of oilseed plants. Peanuts are plants with tubers, and corn are plants with sprouts [11]. Among them, the main oilseeds are palm, coconut, sunflower and soybean [12]. This review will focus on two major oilseed plants from Southeast Asia, namely oil palm and coconut.

In recent years, CO or VCO has received media attention and its consumption by the world population has increased due to its health benefits. Additionally, physicians have supported the use of these oils as a culinary medium and recommended them as additional ingredients in coffee or vitamin drinks [13]. In general, a functional oil is defined as an oil that provides health benefits beyond its nutritional value [14]. VCO is composed of 90% saturated fatty acids, and 62% of its total fatty acid composition consists of medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) [15, 16]. VCO is becoming increasingly popular as a functional oil due to its high MCFA content and there has been an increase in VCO in the market [17]. One of the pharmacologically active components of VCO is lauric acid, MCFA, which dominates the fatty acid composition with a percentage ranging from 46% to 48%. Oral ingestion of VCO results in the conversion of lauric acid to monolaurin in the human body. Monolaurin is a major component of breast milk that strengthens the immune system of young children [18] and has the ability to destroy the lipid membranes of bacteria [14]. Therefore, VCO is used as a natural food preservative that kills bacteria [14]. Additionally, the high MCFA content of VCO has good digestibility for consumers [15], as it has a lower melting and solidification point, smaller molecular size, and lower energy density compared to other triglycerides, which are primarily composed of saturated fatty acids [15]. ]. 19]. In addition, MCFA oils are widely used in the flavoring industry due to their greater hydrophilicity compared to conventional fats and oils, due to which they are able to dissolve various polar substances [14]. Due to these advantages, VCO has a wide market throughout Southeast Asia [17].

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And squalene [7]. About 15% of PPMF will be produced from fresh fruit bunches (FFB) after CPO extraction. PPMF will be used as a fuel for boilers in palm oil mills, as well as for mulching plantation fields to prevent leaching and improve soil fertility [7]. Overall, a palm oil mill produces approximately 1.6 tons of PPMF per hectare of palm oil annually [21], resulting in significant phytonutrient losses. Therefore, several approaches have been studied to recover residual oil from PPMP.

Optimization of VCO and PPMO extraction methods is an important area of research aimed at retaining as many natural phytonutrients as possible and achieving consistent yields of oil extracts. Therefore, this review has summarized the general extraction methods of VCO and PPMO. The phytonutrient content of these oils has been found to vary depending on the extraction methods used.

RBD CO or copra oil and VCO are extracted from coconut kernels (Cocos nucifera L.). The coconut palm belongs to the Arecaceae family and is well known for its hundreds and unlimited uses around the world, such as a source of timber, fiber and biofuels. There are several types of coconuts from dwarf to tall ones such as Indian, Malay, Jamaican, Ceylon, Java, lagoon, orange, green and Fijian. The world’s three largest coconut producers are Indonesia (3.1 million hectares), the Philippines (2.7 million hectares) and India (1.5 million hectares). These countries produce three-quarters of the world’s coconut production, about 64 billion coconuts [22]. Additionally, other countries including Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Fiji and Samoa are considered major VCO producers. The largest consumers of VCO are the United States, Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, Australia and the Asia-Pacific region [23].

Refined, bleached and deodorized coconut oil and VCO are obtained from coconut kernels, but differ in extraction methods: RBD CO is obtained from dried copra using a dry processing method, while VCO is obtained from fresh coconut meat. Dry processing methods, including wedge, screw and hot hydraulic presses, are widely used in commercial CO production in Asian countries. The recovered CO will then undergo RBD processes [24]. The RBD process uses high temperature, especially in the deodorization process, which involves temperatures up to 204–245 °C, which deactivates bioactive components such as tocopherols and polyphenols [25]. Thanks to the purification process, CO is tasteless and odorless. On the other hand, VOC is extracted from fresh and mature coconut kernels by mechanical method with or without heat but without chemical purification [26]. The absence of chemical treatment and heating preserves the taste and smell of the oil. In addition, the polyphenolic fraction of VCO has greater activity in reducing microsomal lipid peroxidation compared to CO and peanut oil [27].

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Coconut oil is traditionally made by boiling coconut milk to evaporate the water, leaving behind the oil. TO

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